The final KINCS design used for a prototype flying-wing aircraft is presented. The Kinetic Internal Nexus Compliant System (KINCS) is presented as a solution for a wing using discontinuous trailing-edge technology. The Airfoil Recambering Compliant System (ARCS) is presented as a solution for a wing using continuous trailing-edge technology. Two concepts are presented as potential 3D-printed morphing-wing mechanisms. Performance was considered in terms of total deflection. Additionally, printer settings have been tested and catalogued to assist others attempting to reproduce these results. Several prototypes were designed and tested and lessons learned from these iterations have been documented. This approach is advantageous due to the low cost, minimal man-hours required for manufacturing, and speed at which design iterations can be explored. The present paper outlines a research effort to develop an easy to manufacture, fully 3D-printed morphing wing. Most of these solutions are difficult to manufacture or have limited morphing capability. In recent years, various groups have attempted to improve aircraft efficiency using wings with morphing trailing-edge technology. Following studies can test these hypotheses using morphological measurements. Second, maximizing lift extracted from updrafts should result in wings with middling ARs and high wing chordwise camber. First, maximizing distance traveled (maximizing lift-to-drag ratio and minimizing gliding angle) should result in wings with high ARs and middling-to-low wing chordwise camber. Furthermore, gliding birds can use two distinct soaring strategies based on performance landscapes. Gliding birds likely have greater ARs than non-gliding birds, due to the high sensitivity of AR on most metrics of gliding performance. We also examine performance based on the soaring strategy for possible differences in morphology within gliding birds. We use a computational model of gliding flight, along with analysis by uncertainty quantification, to (1) create performance landscapes of gliding based on output metrics (maximum lift-to-drag ratio, minimum gliding angle, minimum sinking speed, and lift coefficient at minimum sinking speed) and (2) predict what parameters of flight (chordwise camber, wing aspect ratio, and Reynolds number) would differ between gliding and nongliding species of birds. In order to better understand this connection, we present a holistic analysis of gliding flight that preserves complex relationships between parameters. The connection between wing morphology and performance is unclear due to the complex relationships between various parameters of flight. The physics of flight influences the morphology of bird wings through natural selection on flight performance. It is emphasized that the concave lower surface enhances the time-averaged aerodynamic performance at all of the α even though the LSB is generated and fluctuation in lift history is induced at low α. This is due to the strong suction peaks and distribution of surface pressure on the pressure side. Furthermore, the owl-like wing model demonstrates favorable aerodynamic performance in terms of a maximum lift-to-drag ratio in comparison with several airfoils at the Re range considered. The generation of the LSB on the suction and/or pressure sides at the Re of 2.3 × 10⁴ and 4.6 × 10⁴ are seen, while reattachments are observed only on the pressure side at the Re of 1.0 × 10⁴ due to the camber of the wing.
The results computed clarify a nonlinear change in the Cl curve slope, which is due to an increase in the suction peaks in conjunction with the change in type of separation, the formation of a laminar separation bubble (LSB), and pressure recovery on the pressure side. The time-averaged lift (Cl) and drag coefficients computed are in reasonable agreement with the results of force measurement. The chord-based Re ranges from 1.0 × 10⁴ to 5.0 × 10⁴ and the angle of attack (α) varies from 0 to 14 deg. The airfoil shape of the owl-like wing model is constructed based on a cross-sectional geometry of the owl wing at 40% wingspan from the root. Aerodynamics of an owl-like wing model at low Reynolds numbers (Re = O(104–5)) are investigated using large-eddy simulations with high-resolution computational schemes.
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